• MAGNESIUM This mineral is involved in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from fatty acid oxidation, post-contractile muscular relaxation, and bone remineralization. It is also involved in phosphatidylglycerol (DPG) production, which is important to red blood cell formation. ATP, present in all cells but particularly in muscle cells, stores energy. Low magnesium levels can acutely contribute to early fatigue, nausea and muscle cramps. Chronic magnesium deficiencies can lead to increased osteoporosis risk and anemia.⁶

Athletes lose magnesium through sweat and urine. This, combined with the fact that athletes' diets are usually low in magnesium, generally leads to the need for supplementation.⁷ Recommended intake for endurance athletes is 500 to 800 mg daily.⁸ Higher doses can cause diarrhea.

• POTASSIUM This mineral, present in intracellular fluid, is responsible for regulating total body water and stabilizing controlled and automatic muscle contractions. It is also lost through sweat and urine.

In a study of athletes running 40 minutes at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, potassium loss was estimated at 435 mg/hour. The rate of potassium loss is approximately 200 mg/kg of weight lost during exercise.⁹

Cells release potassium into the bloodstream and serum levels rise with exercise, possibly instigating fatigue. Potassium supplementation after short events (less than two hours), and during and after long events, is warranted.¹⁰ For postactivity replacement, athletes should take about 435 mg/hour of exercise or 200 mg/kg of weight loss. As much as 150 mg/hour during activity can be tolerated by most athletes. Supplement potassium cautiously because too much too quickly can cause cardiac arrest.

Supplementing with potassium during training does increase markers of recovery, primarily serum lactate and muscle hydration, but does not aid performance.¹⁰

• SELENIUM Essential to antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) production, selenium is a free radical-scavenging tripeptide made up of glutamine, cysteine and glycine. It is concentrated in the lining of the GI tract and lungs, in the liver, and in skeletal muscle. In an animal study, reducing muscular SeGPx increased cellular damage from prolonged exercise, supporting the theory that free radical-induced muscle damage causes muscle fatigue.¹¹

Research shows selenium benefits athletes' immune function and helps repair cellular damage. Researchers studied the selenium supplementation effects on muscle SeGPx in 24 healthy nonsmoking males. Half took 240 mcg of sodium selenite; half took placebo. After cycling to exhaustion—durations ranged from 2.6 to 3.5 hours—the group that took selenium showed less cellular damage.¹²

Supplementation with 200 mcg of selenium is safe and warranted for endurance athletes.¹³

• SODIUM This element helps cells retain water and prevents dehydration. Sodium also enables ATP generation. For events lasting longer than five hours, especially in hot weather, hyponatremia (dangerously low sodium) is a real concern. This especially applies to first-time or slower-running marathoners. Most organized events have aid stations with salty snacks. Anyone out for more than a few hours, especially on a warm day, should make sure to get some salt from snacks and fluid-replacement drinks.

A prospective study was performed on 36 athletes during a three- to four-hour triathlon and 64 athletes at an ironman race, which lasts between nine and 15 hours. No athletes were hyponatremic after the shorter race, but 27 percent were hyponatremic following the ironman. An average of 17 percent of the ironman participants required medical attention, most for hyponatremia.¹⁴

Extrapolated from that study, athletes should aim for 80 to 100 mg sodium per quart of hydrating beverage and 100 to 300 mg sodium per hour from other sources.

• ZINC This mineral aids in post-exertion tissue repair and in the conversion of food to fuel. Both male and female athletes have lower serum zinc levels compared with sedentary individuals. Studies correlate endurance exercise with periods of compromised immunity—zinc depletion may be one reason.¹⁵

Those who train without days off lose zinc even more quickly. In a study of cyclists, researchers looked at zinc excretion via sweat. Half of the group underwent intense training for two months. Half underwent moderate training with two to three days off per week. Both groups were studied before and after. The exercising group showed increased zinc excretion while the control group showed no increase.¹⁶ The researchers believe altered zinc metabolism coupled with increased zinc excretion and stress levels lead to fatigue and decreased endurance.

Athletes should take 30 to 60 mg zinc daily.¹⁷ Zinc picolinate or monomethionate are most easily tolerated.¹⁸

Prevent Oxidative Damage
Antioxidants are another set of nutrients that endurance athletes are wise to use.

• VITAMIN E For athletes, one of the most important antioxidants is vitamin E. Aerobic athletes may have an increased need for this vitamin because their cells undergo more oxidative damage. Research shows athletes have less cellular damage when they ingest more vitamin E.¹⁹ Aerobic exercise places additional demands on the molecular free radical scavengers of the body, and vitamin E is a well-known scavenger.

In a study of 30 top-class cyclists, five months of supplementation with natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) at an 800-IU daily dose significantly decreased markers of oxidative damage to muscle tissue. However, vitamin E did not benefit athletic performance.

Studies evaluating vitamin E as an ergogenic, or performance aid, show no benefit.¹⁹ One possible exception is at higher altitudes where oxidative stress is more intense. A group of six mountain climbers took 400 mg synthetic vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate). During exertion at altitude, they showed less output of pentane and lactic acid—both markers of oxidative damage, but not suggestive of improved athletic performance. The athletes also showed a statistically significant increase in anaerobic threshold compared to a placebo group.²⁰

The amount of vitamin E necessary to benefit athletes is not obtainable through diet. The jury is still out on natural vs. synthetic vitamin E, but endurance athletes should take 400 to 800 IU/day.

Protein and Glutamine
Without adequate protein and glutamine, athletes can feel the effects of reduced metabolism, poorer recovery times and increased susceptibility to infections.

• PROTEIN The RDA for protein is 60 mg per day for adults (specifically 0.8 g/kg of body weight/day). This recommendation, however, is based on the needs of sedentary individuals. Recent studies indicate that protein needs increase during strenuous activity, which applies to both strength and endurance athletes.²¹

Endurance athletes need more protein for different reasons than strength athletes do. Endurance athletes primarily use protein for maintaining aerobic metabolism, compared with the increased tissue-repair needs of strength athletes. When intake is inadequate, the body sequesters the needed proteins from lean tissue, which gives overtrained endurance athletes a gaunt appearance. A protein deficit also impairs an athlete's recovery and wound-healing ability.¹⁴

Researchers recommend endurance athletes eat 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg of body weight/day of protein.²² For a 155-pound athlete, this means a total of 85 to 100 g protein per day. Only a few studies recommend protein intake levels as high as 2 g/kg of body weight/day.²³

• GLUTAMINE This amino acid increases the numbers of lymphocytes and macrophages. When glutamine levels are low these immune cells show depressed activity.²⁴ Prolonged exercise consistently lowers glutamine levels. Glutamine supplementation reduces vulnerability to infections after prolonged exercise, though a few studies examining this phenomenon at lower exercise intensity levels have not shown benefit.²⁵

Oral glutamine replacement after exercise can lower infection risk. In one study, 200 runners and rowers were given placebo or 2,000 mg glutamine two hours after exercise. In the seven days following the exercise, 81 percent of the glutamine-supplemented group were infection-free compared to 49 percent in the placebo group.²⁶

A supplement that provides 2 g glutamine daily is a wise choice for athletes in training.²⁶

Athletes who train strenuously for competition have greater nutritional needs than sedentary people. Adequate nutrients can mean quicker recovery time, lower infection rates, less fatigue, and ultimately, can help athletes reach their desired performance levels.

Alan Christianson, N.D., has a naturopathic private practice in Scottsdale, Ariz.

References

1. Guezennec CY, et al. Is there a relationship between physical activity and dietary calcium intake? A survey in 10,373 young French subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 May;30(5):732-9.

26.Castell LM, et al. Does glutamine have a role in reducing infections in athletes? Eur J Appl Physiol 1996;73(5):488-90.

• MAGNESIUM This mineral is involved in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from fatty acid oxidation, post-contractile muscular relaxation, and bone remineralization. It is also involved in phosphatidylglycerol (DPG) production, which is important to red blood cell formation. ATP, present in all cells but particularly in muscle cells, stores energy. Low magnesium levels can acutely contribute to early fatigue, nausea and muscle cramps. Chronic magnesium deficiencies can lead to increased osteoporosis risk and anemia.⁶

Athletes lose magnesium through sweat and urine. This, combined with the fact that athletes' diets are usually low in magnesium, generally leads to the need for supplementation.⁷ Recommended intake for endurance athletes is 500 to 800 mg daily.⁸ Higher doses can cause diarrhea.

• POTASSIUM This mineral, present in intracellular fluid, is responsible for regulating total body water and stabilizing controlled and automatic muscle contractions. It is also lost through sweat and urine.

In a study of athletes running 40 minutes at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, potassium loss was estimated at 435 mg/hour. The rate of potassium loss is approximately 200 mg/kg of weight lost during exercise.⁹

Cells release potassium into the bloodstream and serum levels rise with exercise, possibly instigating fatigue. Potassium supplementation after short events (less than two hours), and during and after long events, is warranted.¹⁰ For postactivity replacement, athletes should take about 435 mg/hour of exercise or 200 mg/kg of weight loss. As much as 150 mg/hour during activity can be tolerated by most athletes. Supplement potassium cautiously because too much too quickly can cause cardiac arrest.

Supplementing with potassium during training does increase markers of recovery, primarily serum lactate and muscle hydration, but does not aid performance.¹⁰

• SELENIUM Essential to antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) production, selenium is a free radical-scavenging tripeptide made up of glutamine, cysteine and glycine. It is concentrated in the lining of the GI tract and lungs, in the liver, and in skeletal muscle. In an animal study, reducing muscular SeGPx increased cellular damage from prolonged exercise, supporting the theory that free radical-induced muscle damage causes muscle fatigue.¹¹

Research shows selenium benefits athletes' immune function and helps repair cellular damage. Researchers studied the selenium supplementation effects on muscle SeGPx in 24 healthy nonsmoking males. Half took 240 mcg of sodium selenite; half took placebo. After cycling to exhaustion—durations ranged from 2.6 to 3.5 hours—the group that took selenium showed less cellular damage.¹²

Supplementation with 200 mcg of selenium is safe and warranted for endurance athletes.¹³

• SODIUM This element helps cells retain water and prevents dehydration. Sodium also enables ATP generation. For events lasting longer than five hours, especially in hot weather, hyponatremia (dangerously low sodium) is a real concern. This especially applies to first-time or slower-running marathoners. Most organized events have aid stations with salty snacks. Anyone out for more than a few hours, especially on a warm day, should make sure to get some salt from snacks and fluid-replacement drinks.

A prospective study was performed on 36 athletes during a three- to four-hour triathlon and 64 athletes at an ironman race, which lasts between nine and 15 hours. No athletes were hyponatremic after the shorter race, but 27 percent were hyponatremic following the ironman. An average of 17 percent of the ironman participants required medical attention, most for hyponatremia.¹⁴

Extrapolated from that study, athletes should aim for 80 to 100 mg sodium per quart of hydrating beverage and 100 to 300 mg sodium per hour from other sources.

• ZINC This mineral aids in post-exertion tissue repair and in the conversion of food to fuel. Both male and female athletes have lower serum zinc levels compared with sedentary individuals. Studies correlate endurance exercise with periods of compromised immunity—zinc depletion may be one reason.¹⁵

Those who train without days off lose zinc even more quickly. In a study of cyclists, researchers looked at zinc excretion via sweat. Half of the group underwent intense training for two months. Half underwent moderate training with two to three days off per week. Both groups were studied before and after. The exercising group showed increased zinc excretion while the control group showed no increase.¹⁶ The researchers believe altered zinc metabolism coupled with increased zinc excretion and stress levels lead to fatigue and decreased endurance.

Athletes should take 30 to 60 mg zinc daily.¹⁷ Zinc picolinate or monomethionate are most easily tolerated.¹⁸

Prevent Oxidative Damage
Antioxidants are another set of nutrients that endurance athletes are wise to use.

• VITAMIN E For athletes, one of the most important antioxidants is vitamin E. Aerobic athletes may have an increased need for this vitamin because their cells undergo more oxidative damage. Research shows athletes have less cellular damage when they ingest more vitamin E.¹⁹ Aerobic exercise places additional demands on the molecular free radical scavengers of the body, and vitamin E is a well-known scavenger.

In a study of 30 top-class cyclists, five months of supplementation with natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) at an 800-IU daily dose significantly decreased markers of oxidative damage to muscle tissue. However, vitamin E did not benefit athletic performance.

Studies evaluating vitamin E as an ergogenic, or performance aid, show no benefit.¹⁹ One possible exception is at higher altitudes where oxidative stress is more intense. A group of six mountain climbers took 400 mg synthetic vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate). During exertion at altitude, they showed less output of pentane and lactic acid—both markers of oxidative damage, but not suggestive of improved athletic performance. The athletes also showed a statistically significant increase in anaerobic threshold compared to a placebo group.²⁰

The amount of vitamin E necessary to benefit athletes is not obtainable through diet. The jury is still out on natural vs. synthetic vitamin E, but endurance athletes should take 400 to 800 IU/day.

Protein and Glutamine
Without adequate protein and glutamine, athletes can feel the effects of reduced metabolism, poorer recovery times and increased susceptibility to infections.

• PROTEIN The RDA for protein is 60 mg per day for adults (specifically 0.8 g/kg of body weight/day). This recommendation, however, is based on the needs of sedentary individuals. Recent studies indicate that protein needs increase during strenuous activity, which applies to both strength and endurance athletes.²¹

Endurance athletes need more protein for different reasons than strength athletes do. Endurance athletes primarily use protein for maintaining aerobic metabolism, compared with the increased tissue-repair needs of strength athletes. When intake is inadequate, the body sequesters the needed proteins from lean tissue, which gives overtrained endurance athletes a gaunt appearance. A protein deficit also impairs an athlete's recovery and wound-healing ability.¹⁴

Researchers recommend endurance athletes eat 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg of body weight/day of protein.²² For a 155-pound athlete, this means a total of 85 to 100 g protein per day. Only a few studies recommend protein intake levels as high as 2 g/kg of body weight/day.²³

• GLUTAMINE This amino acid increases the numbers of lymphocytes and macrophages. When glutamine levels are low these immune cells show depressed activity.²⁴ Prolonged exercise consistently lowers glutamine levels. Glutamine supplementation reduces vulnerability to infections after prolonged exercise, though a few studies examining this phenomenon at lower exercise intensity levels have not shown benefit.²⁵

Oral glutamine replacement after exercise can lower infection risk. In one study, 200 runners and rowers were given placebo or 2,000 mg glutamine two hours after exercise. In the seven days following the exercise, 81 percent of the glutamine-supplemented group were infection-free compared to 49 percent in the placebo group.²⁶

A supplement that provides 2 g glutamine daily is a wise choice for athletes in training.²⁶

Athletes who train strenuously for competition have greater nutritional needs than sedentary people. Adequate nutrients can mean quicker recovery time, lower infection rates, less fatigue, and ultimately, can help athletes reach their desired performance levels.

Alan Christianson, N.D., has a naturopathic private practice in Scottsdale, Ariz.

References

1. Guezennec CY, et al. Is there a relationship between physical activity and dietary calcium intake? A survey in 10,373 young French subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 May;30(5):732-9.

26.Castell LM, et al. Does glutamine have a role in reducing infections in athletes? Eur J Appl Physiol 1996;73(5):488-90.

• MAGNESIUM This mineral is involved in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from fatty acid oxidation, post-contractile muscular relaxation, and bone remineralization. It is also involved in phosphatidylglycerol (DPG) production, which is important to red blood cell formation. ATP, present in all cells but particularly in muscle cells, stores energy. Low magnesium levels can acutely contribute to early fatigue, nausea and muscle cramps. Chronic magnesium deficiencies can lead to increased osteoporosis risk and anemia.⁶

Athletes lose magnesium through sweat and urine. This, combined with the fact that athletes' diets are usually low in magnesium, generally leads to the need for supplementation.⁷ Recommended intake for endurance athletes is 500 to 800 mg daily.⁸ Higher doses can cause diarrhea.

• POTASSIUM This mineral, present in intracellular fluid, is responsible for regulating total body water and stabilizing controlled and automatic muscle contractions. It is also lost through sweat and urine.

In a study of athletes running 40 minutes at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, potassium loss was estimated at 435 mg/hour. The rate of potassium loss is approximately 200 mg/kg of weight lost during exercise.⁹

Cells release potassium into the bloodstream and serum levels rise with exercise, possibly instigating fatigue. Potassium supplementation after short events (less than two hours), and during and after long events, is warranted.¹⁰ For postactivity replacement, athletes should take about 435 mg/hour of exercise or 200 mg/kg of weight loss. As much as 150 mg/hour during activity can be tolerated by most athletes. Supplement potassium cautiously because too much too quickly can cause cardiac arrest.

Supplementing with potassium during training does increase markers of recovery, primarily serum lactate and muscle hydration, but does not aid performance.¹⁰

• SELENIUM Essential to antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) production, selenium is a free radical-scavenging tripeptide made up of glutamine, cysteine and glycine. It is concentrated in the lining of the GI tract and lungs, in the liver, and in skeletal muscle. In an animal study, reducing muscular SeGPx increased cellular damage from prolonged exercise, supporting the theory that free radical-induced muscle damage causes muscle fatigue.¹¹

Research shows selenium benefits athletes' immune function and helps repair cellular damage. Researchers studied the selenium supplementation effects on muscle SeGPx in 24 healthy nonsmoking males. Half took 240 mcg of sodium selenite; half took placebo. After cycling to exhaustion—durations ranged from 2.6 to 3.5 hours—the group that took selenium showed less cellular damage.¹²

Supplementation with 200 mcg of selenium is safe and warranted for endurance athletes.¹³

• SODIUM This element helps cells retain water and prevents dehydration. Sodium also enables ATP generation. For events lasting longer than five hours, especially in hot weather, hyponatremia (dangerously low sodium) is a real concern. This especially applies to first-time or slower-running marathoners. Most organized events have aid stations with salty snacks. Anyone out for more than a few hours, especially on a warm day, should make sure to get some salt from snacks and fluid-replacement drinks.

A prospective study was performed on 36 athletes during a three- to four-hour triathlon and 64 athletes at an ironman race, which lasts between nine and 15 hours. No athletes were hyponatremic after the shorter race, but 27 percent were hyponatremic following the ironman. An average of 17 percent of the ironman participants required medical attention, most for hyponatremia.¹⁴

Extrapolated from that study, athletes should aim for 80 to 100 mg sodium per quart of hydrating beverage and 100 to 300 mg sodium per hour from other sources.

• ZINC This mineral aids in post-exertion tissue repair and in the conversion of food to fuel. Both male and female athletes have lower serum zinc levels compared with sedentary individuals. Studies correlate endurance exercise with periods of compromised immunity—zinc depletion may be one reason.¹⁵

Those who train without days off lose zinc even more quickly. In a study of cyclists, researchers looked at zinc excretion via sweat. Half of the group underwent intense training for two months. Half underwent moderate training with two to three days off per week. Both groups were studied before and after. The exercising group showed increased zinc excretion while the control group showed no increase.¹⁶ The researchers believe altered zinc metabolism coupled with increased zinc excretion and stress levels lead to fatigue and decreased endurance.

Athletes should take 30 to 60 mg zinc daily.¹⁷ Zinc picolinate or monomethionate are most easily tolerated.¹⁸

Prevent Oxidative Damage
Antioxidants are another set of nutrients that endurance athletes are wise to use.

• VITAMIN E For athletes, one of the most important antioxidants is vitamin E. Aerobic athletes may have an increased need for this vitamin because their cells undergo more oxidative damage. Research shows athletes have less cellular damage when they ingest more vitamin E.¹⁹ Aerobic exercise places additional demands on the molecular free radical scavengers of the body, and vitamin E is a well-known scavenger.

In a study of 30 top-class cyclists, five months of supplementation with natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) at an 800-IU daily dose significantly decreased markers of oxidative damage to muscle tissue. However, vitamin E did not benefit athletic performance.

Studies evaluating vitamin E as an ergogenic, or performance aid, show no benefit.¹⁹ One possible exception is at higher altitudes where oxidative stress is more intense. A group of six mountain climbers took 400 mg synthetic vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate). During exertion at altitude, they showed less output of pentane and lactic acid—both markers of oxidative damage, but not suggestive of improved athletic performance. The athletes also showed a statistically significant increase in anaerobic threshold compared to a placebo group.²⁰

The amount of vitamin E necessary to benefit athletes is not obtainable through diet. The jury is still out on natural vs. synthetic vitamin E, but endurance athletes should take 400 to 800 IU/day.

Protein and Glutamine
Without adequate protein and glutamine, athletes can feel the effects of reduced metabolism, poorer recovery times and increased susceptibility to infections.

• PROTEIN The RDA for protein is 60 mg per day for adults (specifically 0.8 g/kg of body weight/day). This recommendation, however, is based on the needs of sedentary individuals. Recent studies indicate that protein needs increase during strenuous activity, which applies to both strength and endurance athletes.²¹

Endurance athletes need more protein for different reasons than strength athletes do. Endurance athletes primarily use protein for maintaining aerobic metabolism, compared with the increased tissue-repair needs of strength athletes. When intake is inadequate, the body sequesters the needed proteins from lean tissue, which gives overtrained endurance athletes a gaunt appearance. A protein deficit also impairs an athlete's recovery and wound-healing ability.¹⁴

Researchers recommend endurance athletes eat 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg of body weight/day of protein.²² For a 155-pound athlete, this means a total of 85 to 100 g protein per day. Only a few studies recommend protein intake levels as high as 2 g/kg of body weight/day.²³

• GLUTAMINE This amino acid increases the numbers of lymphocytes and macrophages. When glutamine levels are low these immune cells show depressed activity.²⁴ Prolonged exercise consistently lowers glutamine levels. Glutamine supplementation reduces vulnerability to infections after prolonged exercise, though a few studies examining this phenomenon at lower exercise intensity levels have not shown benefit.²⁵

Oral glutamine replacement after exercise can lower infection risk. In one study, 200 runners and rowers were given placebo or 2,000 mg glutamine two hours after exercise. In the seven days following the exercise, 81 percent of the glutamine-supplemented group were infection-free compared to 49 percent in the placebo group.²⁶

A supplement that provides 2 g glutamine daily is a wise choice for athletes in training.²⁶

Athletes who train strenuously for competition have greater nutritional needs than sedentary people. Adequate nutrients can mean quicker recovery time, lower infection rates, less fatigue, and ultimately, can help athletes reach their desired performance levels.

Alan Christianson, N.D., has a naturopathic private practice in Scottsdale, Ariz.

References

1. Guezennec CY, et al. Is there a relationship between physical activity and dietary calcium intake? A survey in 10,373 young French subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 May;30(5):732-9.

26.Castell LM, et al. Does glutamine have a role in reducing infections in athletes? Eur J Appl Physiol 1996;73(5):488-90.

• MAGNESIUM This mineral is involved in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from fatty acid oxidation, post-contractile muscular relaxation, and bone remineralization. It is also involved in phosphatidylglycerol (DPG) production, which is important to red blood cell formation. ATP, present in all cells but particularly in muscle cells, stores energy. Low magnesium levels can acutely contribute to early fatigue, nausea and muscle cramps. Chronic magnesium deficiencies can lead to increased osteoporosis risk and anemia.⁶

Athletes lose magnesium through sweat and urine. This, combined with the fact that athletes' diets are usually low in magnesium, generally leads to the need for supplementation.⁷ Recommended intake for endurance athletes is 500 to 800 mg daily.⁸ Higher doses can cause diarrhea.

• POTASSIUM This mineral, present in intracellular fluid, is responsible for regulating total body water and stabilizing controlled and automatic muscle contractions. It is also lost through sweat and urine.

In a study of athletes running 40 minutes at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, potassium loss was estimated at 435 mg/hour. The rate of potassium loss is approximately 200 mg/kg of weight lost during exercise.⁹

Cells release potassium into the bloodstream and serum levels rise with exercise, possibly instigating fatigue. Potassium supplementation after short events (less than two hours), and during and after long events, is warranted.¹⁰ For postactivity replacement, athletes should take about 435 mg/hour of exercise or 200 mg/kg of weight loss. As much as 150 mg/hour during activity can be tolerated by most athletes. Supplement potassium cautiously because too much too quickly can cause cardiac arrest.

Supplementing with potassium during training does increase markers of recovery, primarily serum lactate and muscle hydration, but does not aid performance.¹⁰

• SELENIUM Essential to antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) production, selenium is a free radical-scavenging tripeptide made up of glutamine, cysteine and glycine. It is concentrated in the lining of the GI tract and lungs, in the liver, and in skeletal muscle. In an animal study, reducing muscular SeGPx increased cellular damage from prolonged exercise, supporting the theory that free radical-induced muscle damage causes muscle fatigue.¹¹

Research shows selenium benefits athletes' immune function and helps repair cellular damage. Researchers studied the selenium supplementation effects on muscle SeGPx in 24 healthy nonsmoking males. Half took 240 mcg of sodium selenite; half took placebo. After cycling to exhaustion—durations ranged from 2.6 to 3.5 hours—the group that took selenium showed less cellular damage.¹²

Supplementation with 200 mcg of selenium is safe and warranted for endurance athletes.¹³

• SODIUM This element helps cells retain water and prevents dehydration. Sodium also enables ATP generation. For events lasting longer than five hours, especially in hot weather, hyponatremia (dangerously low sodium) is a real concern. This especially applies to first-time or slower-running marathoners. Most organized events have aid stations with salty snacks. Anyone out for more than a few hours, especially on a warm day, should make sure to get some salt from snacks and fluid-replacement drinks.

A prospective study was performed on 36 athletes during a three- to four-hour triathlon and 64 athletes at an ironman race, which lasts between nine and 15 hours. No athletes were hyponatremic after the shorter race, but 27 percent were hyponatremic following the ironman. An average of 17 percent of the ironman participants required medical attention, most for hyponatremia.¹⁴

Extrapolated from that study, athletes should aim for 80 to 100 mg sodium per quart of hydrating beverage and 100 to 300 mg sodium per hour from other sources.

• ZINC This mineral aids in post-exertion tissue repair and in the conversion of food to fuel. Both male and female athletes have lower serum zinc levels compared with sedentary individuals. Studies correlate endurance exercise with periods of compromised immunity—zinc depletion may be one reason.¹⁵

Those who train without days off lose zinc even more quickly. In a study of cyclists, researchers looked at zinc excretion via sweat. Half of the group underwent intense training for two months. Half underwent moderate training with two to three days off per week. Both groups were studied before and after. The exercising group showed increased zinc excretion while the control group showed no increase.¹⁶ The researchers believe altered zinc metabolism coupled with increased zinc excretion and stress levels lead to fatigue and decreased endurance.

Athletes should take 30 to 60 mg zinc daily.¹⁷ Zinc picolinate or monomethionate are most easily tolerated.¹⁸

Prevent Oxidative Damage
Antioxidants are another set of nutrients that endurance athletes are wise to use.

• VITAMIN E For athletes, one of the most important antioxidants is vitamin E. Aerobic athletes may have an increased need for this vitamin because their cells undergo more oxidative damage. Research shows athletes have less cellular damage when they ingest more vitamin E.¹⁹ Aerobic exercise places additional demands on the molecular free radical scavengers of the body, and vitamin E is a well-known scavenger.

In a study of 30 top-class cyclists, five months of supplementation with natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) at an 800-IU daily dose significantly decreased markers of oxidative damage to muscle tissue. However, vitamin E did not benefit athletic performance.

Studies evaluating vitamin E as an ergogenic, or performance aid, show no benefit.¹⁹ One possible exception is at higher altitudes where oxidative stress is more intense. A group of six mountain climbers took 400 mg synthetic vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate). During exertion at altitude, they showed less output of pentane and lactic acid—both markers of oxidative damage, but not suggestive of improved athletic performance. The athletes also showed a statistically significant increase in anaerobic threshold compared to a placebo group.²⁰

The amount of vitamin E necessary to benefit athletes is not obtainable through diet. The jury is still out on natural vs. synthetic vitamin E, but endurance athletes should take 400 to 800 IU/day.

Protein and Glutamine
Without adequate protein and glutamine, athletes can feel the effects of reduced metabolism, poorer recovery times and increased susceptibility to infections.

• PROTEIN The RDA for protein is 60 mg per day for adults (specifically 0.8 g/kg of body weight/day). This recommendation, however, is based on the needs of sedentary individuals. Recent studies indicate that protein needs increase during strenuous activity, which applies to both strength and endurance athletes.²¹

Endurance athletes need more protein for different reasons than strength athletes do. Endurance athletes primarily use protein for maintaining aerobic metabolism, compared with the increased tissue-repair needs of strength athletes. When intake is inadequate, the body sequesters the needed proteins from lean tissue, which gives overtrained endurance athletes a gaunt appearance. A protein deficit also impairs an athlete's recovery and wound-healing ability.¹⁴

Researchers recommend endurance athletes eat 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg of body weight/day of protein.²² For a 155-pound athlete, this means a total of 85 to 100 g protein per day. Only a few studies recommend protein intake levels as high as 2 g/kg of body weight/day.²³

• GLUTAMINE This amino acid increases the numbers of lymphocytes and macrophages. When glutamine levels are low these immune cells show depressed activity.²⁴ Prolonged exercise consistently lowers glutamine levels. Glutamine supplementation reduces vulnerability to infections after prolonged exercise, though a few studies examining this phenomenon at lower exercise intensity levels have not shown benefit.²⁵

Oral glutamine replacement after exercise can lower infection risk. In one study, 200 runners and rowers were given placebo or 2,000 mg glutamine two hours after exercise. In the seven days following the exercise, 81 percent of the glutamine-supplemented group were infection-free compared to 49 percent in the placebo group.²⁶

A supplement that provides 2 g glutamine daily is a wise choice for athletes in training.²⁶

Athletes who train strenuously for competition have greater nutritional needs than sedentary people. Adequate nutrients can mean quicker recovery time, lower infection rates, less fatigue, and ultimately, can help athletes reach their desired performance levels.

Alan Christianson, N.D., has a naturopathic private practice in Scottsdale, Ariz.

References

1. Guezennec CY, et al. Is there a relationship between physical activity and dietary calcium intake? A survey in 10,373 young French subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 May;30(5):732-9.

26.Castell LM, et al. Does glutamine have a role in reducing infections in athletes? Eur J Appl Physiol 1996;73(5):488-90.

• MAGNESIUM This mineral is involved in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from fatty acid oxidation, post-contractile muscular relaxation, and bone remineralization. It is also involved in phosphatidylglycerol (DPG) production, which is important to red blood cell formation. ATP, present in all cells but particularly in muscle cells, stores energy. Low magnesium levels can acutely contribute to early fatigue, nausea and muscle cramps. Chronic magnesium deficiencies can lead to increased osteoporosis risk and anemia.⁶

Athletes lose magnesium through sweat and urine. This, combined with the fact that athletes' diets are usually low in magnesium, generally leads to the need for supplementation.⁷ Recommended intake for endurance athletes is 500 to 800 mg daily.⁸ Higher doses can cause diarrhea.

• POTASSIUM This mineral, present in intracellular fluid, is responsible for regulating total body water and stabilizing controlled and automatic muscle contractions. It is also lost through sweat and urine.

In a study of athletes running 40 minutes at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, potassium loss was estimated at 435 mg/hour. The rate of potassium loss is approximately 200 mg/kg of weight lost during exercise.⁹

Cells release potassium into the bloodstream and serum levels rise with exercise, possibly instigating fatigue. Potassium supplementation after short events (less than two hours), and during and after long events, is warranted.¹⁰ For postactivity replacement, athletes should take about 435 mg/hour of exercise or 200 mg/kg of weight loss. As much as 150 mg/hour during activity can be tolerated by most athletes. Supplement potassium cautiously because too much too quickly can cause cardiac arrest.

Supplementing with potassium during training does increase markers of recovery, primarily serum lactate and muscle hydration, but does not aid performance.¹⁰

• SELENIUM Essential to antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) production, selenium is a free radical-scavenging tripeptide made up of glutamine, cysteine and glycine. It is concentrated in the lining of the GI tract and lungs, in the liver, and in skeletal muscle. In an animal study, reducing muscular SeGPx increased cellular damage from prolonged exercise, supporting the theory that free radical-induced muscle damage causes muscle fatigue.¹¹

Research shows selenium benefits athletes' immune function and helps repair cellular damage. Researchers studied the selenium supplementation effects on muscle SeGPx in 24 healthy nonsmoking males. Half took 240 mcg of sodium selenite; half took placebo. After cycling to exhaustion—durations ranged from 2.6 to 3.5 hours—the group that took selenium showed less cellular damage.¹²

Supplementation with 200 mcg of selenium is safe and warranted for endurance athletes.¹³

• SODIUM This element helps cells retain water and prevents dehydration. Sodium also enables ATP generation. For events lasting longer than five hours, especially in hot weather, hyponatremia (dangerously low sodium) is a real concern. This especially applies to first-time or slower-running marathoners. Most organized events have aid stations with salty snacks. Anyone out for more than a few hours, especially on a warm day, should make sure to get some salt from snacks and fluid-replacement drinks.

A prospective study was performed on 36 athletes during a three- to four-hour triathlon and 64 athletes at an ironman race, which lasts between nine and 15 hours. No athletes were hyponatremic after the shorter race, but 27 percent were hyponatremic following the ironman. An average of 17 percent of the ironman participants required medical attention, most for hyponatremia.¹⁴

Extrapolated from that study, athletes should aim for 80 to 100 mg sodium per quart of hydrating beverage and 100 to 300 mg sodium per hour from other sources.

• ZINC This mineral aids in post-exertion tissue repair and in the conversion of food to fuel. Both male and female athletes have lower serum zinc levels compared with sedentary individuals. Studies correlate endurance exercise with periods of compromised immunity—zinc depletion may be one reason.¹⁵

Those who train without days off lose zinc even more quickly. In a study of cyclists, researchers looked at zinc excretion via sweat. Half of the group underwent intense training for two months. Half underwent moderate training with two to three days off per week. Both groups were studied before and after. The exercising group showed increased zinc excretion while the control group showed no increase.¹⁶ The researchers believe altered zinc metabolism coupled with increased zinc excretion and stress levels lead to fatigue and decreased endurance.

Athletes should take 30 to 60 mg zinc daily.¹⁷ Zinc picolinate or monomethionate are most easily tolerated.¹⁸

Prevent Oxidative Damage
Antioxidants are another set of nutrients that endurance athletes are wise to use.

• VITAMIN E For athletes, one of the most important antioxidants is vitamin E. Aerobic athletes may have an increased need for this vitamin because their cells undergo more oxidative damage. Research shows athletes have less cellular damage when they ingest more vitamin E.¹⁹ Aerobic exercise places additional demands on the molecular free radical scavengers of the body, and vitamin E is a well-known scavenger.

In a study of 30 top-class cyclists, five months of supplementation with natural vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) at an 800-IU daily dose significantly decreased markers of oxidative damage to muscle tissue. However, vitamin E did not benefit athletic performance.

Studies evaluating vitamin E as an ergogenic, or performance aid, show no benefit.¹⁹ One possible exception is at higher altitudes where oxidative stress is more intense. A group of six mountain climbers took 400 mg synthetic vitamin E (dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate). During exertion at altitude, they showed less output of pentane and lactic acid—both markers of oxidative damage, but not suggestive of improved athletic performance. The athletes also showed a statistically significant increase in anaerobic threshold compared to a placebo group.²⁰

The amount of vitamin E necessary to benefit athletes is not obtainable through diet. The jury is still out on natural vs. synthetic vitamin E, but endurance athletes should take 400 to 800 IU/day.

Protein and Glutamine
Without adequate protein and glutamine, athletes can feel the effects of reduced metabolism, poorer recovery times and increased susceptibility to infections.

• PROTEIN The RDA for protein is 60 mg per day for adults (specifically 0.8 g/kg of body weight/day). This recommendation, however, is based on the needs of sedentary individuals. Recent studies indicate that protein needs increase during strenuous activity, which applies to both strength and endurance athletes.²¹

Endurance athletes need more protein for different reasons than strength athletes do. Endurance athletes primarily use protein for maintaining aerobic metabolism, compared with the increased tissue-repair needs of strength athletes. When intake is inadequate, the body sequesters the needed proteins from lean tissue, which gives overtrained endurance athletes a gaunt appearance. A protein deficit also impairs an athlete's recovery and wound-healing ability.¹⁴

Researchers recommend endurance athletes eat 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg of body weight/day of protein.²² For a 155-pound athlete, this means a total of 85 to 100 g protein per day. Only a few studies recommend protein intake levels as high as 2 g/kg of body weight/day.²³

• GLUTAMINE This amino acid increases the numbers of lymphocytes and macrophages. When glutamine levels are low these immune cells show depressed activity.²⁴ Prolonged exercise consistently lowers glutamine levels. Glutamine supplementation reduces vulnerability to infections after prolonged exercise, though a few studies examining this phenomenon at lower exercise intensity levels have not shown benefit.²⁵

Oral glutamine replacement after exercise can lower infection risk. In one study, 200 runners and rowers were given placebo or 2,000 mg glutamine two hours after exercise. In the seven days following the exercise, 81 percent of the glutamine-supplemented group were infection-free compared to 49 percent in the placebo group.²⁶

A supplement that provides 2 g glutamine daily is a wise choice for athletes in training.²⁶

Athletes who train strenuously for competition have greater nutritional needs than sedentary people. Adequate nutrients can mean quicker recovery time, lower infection rates, less fatigue, and ultimately, can help athletes reach their desired performance levels.

Alan Christianson, N.D., has a naturopathic private practice in Scottsdale, Ariz.

References

1. Guezennec CY, et al. Is there a relationship between physical activity and dietary calcium intake? A survey in 10,373 young French subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 May;30(5):732-9.

26.Castell LM, et al. Does glutamine have a role in reducing infections in athletes? Eur J Appl Physiol 1996;73(5):488-90.

The Downside to a Good Workout
An exhausting trail run can leave your body dehydrated, depleted of glycogen (carbohydrate) stores, overexposed to free radicals (leading to cellular damage) and cytokines (leading to inflammation) and suffering from tissue damage (mostly leg muscles and lungs). This "depletion" is what causes sore muscles, stiff tendons, creaky joints and low energy levels for a day or two following a hard effort. Studies from the Australian Institute of Sport and from Appalachian State University show that after a middle-distance race (five to 13 miles) as much as 70 percent of participants experience an upper-respiratory tract infection such as a cold, flu or sore throat due to a temporary exercise-induced suppression of the immune system.

An ideal recovery strategy involves immediately replacing what your body lost during exercise through proper recovery nutrition.

Nutritional Recovery Triad
Three aspects to optimal post-exercise recovery are hydration, glycogen replacement and "biochemical balance," which involves reducing inflammation in joints and muscles, reversing oxidation, repairing tissue and restoring the immune system. Oxidation and inflammation are related chemical reactions that cause cellular damage, leading to problems such as fatigue, infections and muscle soreness.

Since it can be difficult to drink enough during long, intense sessions, assume your body is dehydrated post-run and drink more than your thirst demands. Electrolyte beverages with a low sugar concentration are superior to water in the body’s ability to absorb and retain the fluid.

Despite the wide variety of bars, gels and beverages, the bottom line is to select something that tastes good and your stomach can tolerate. A post-exercise snack immediately replaces the sugar stores burned off during exercise. Consuming carbohydrates and protein in liquid form (such as one-percent chocolate milk) is a convenient way to refuel and rehydrate simultaneously. As a rule of thumb, consume around 300 to 500 carbohydrate calories as soon as possible following exercise. Great snacks are banana with yogurt, a handful of nuts and an apple or a bowl of whole-grain cereal topped with berries and one-percent milk. Wash down solid food with plenty of water or sports drink.

While rehydration and glycogen replacement replaces what your body lost, biochemical balancing restores the body’s chemistry to normal levels. Exercise-induced inflammation and oxidation damages muscles, lung tissue and temporarily suppresses the immune system. Until you have rested, you are at increased risk of colds, flu and other respiratory tract infections, injuries such as tendonitis, strains, stress fractures and overtraining which characterized by lethargy, depression and general moodiness.

Anti-oxidant-rich berries (blueberries, blackberries and raspberries), most fruit juices (orange, grape, and apple) and dietary supplements containing flavonoids and inflammation-reducing enzymes help repair tissues. Foods containing these nutrients are pineapple and papaya, roasted soy nuts and other soy products containing immune-balancing beta-sitosterol.

Powerful Protein
Although regular moderate exercise is associated with strengthening the immune system, intense training and competition suppresses immune function. The longer the event, the longer this affect can last. A marathon-distance run can leave an athlete susceptible to infection and viruses for up to two weeks, during which time the body cannot effectively fight off infections or repair exhausted muscles and joints.

Protein is made up of amino acids and is essential for rebuilding damaged muscle tissue and restoring immune system function. Protein-packed foods, such as milk or yogurt (non low-fat varieties) or a palm-sized portion of beef, poultry, fish or legumes (beans), provide amino-acid building blocks for tissue repair.

The immune system uses proteins made up of glutamine and the three branched chain amino acids (BCAA) as fuel. Whey protein, found in some post-exercise recovery drinks and dairy products, is a decent source of all four essential amino acids, but some studies suggest that amino acid uptake is faster when consumed as isolated nutrients in the form of dietary supplements. Look for products that deliver effective levels of BCAAs (1500mg) and glutamine (1000mg) in the proper ratios for post-exercise immune system support. Don’t fall for the "more is better" gimmick, but instead look for products that back up their formulations with research studies on runners.

All protein-containing foods will have some BCAAs and glutamine, but dairy products (because of their whey component) are a particularly good food source.

Recovery-enhancing nutrition may be the most reliable method to improve your trail running. Don’t just eat something after coming off the trail; instead, give some thought to "functional eating."

When to Eat What
Immediate after-workout snack
Within two hours of your run, consume an easy-to-digest carbohydrate- and protein-containing snack with plenty of fluid. A peanut butter and jelly sandwich is a great choice, but eat to satisfy your personal tastes. Immediate post-exercise snacks jumpstart your body’s repair process.

Evening Post-Workout Meal
Your post-run dinner is a major source of tissue-repairing nutrients. This meal should include adequate protein (such as a palm-sized portion of chicken breast), carbohydrates (one or two fist-sized portions, such as pasta), antioxidants (two handfuls of brightly colored fruits or vegetables, such berries or citrus) and some added fat (a golf ball or shot-glass sized portion of full-fat salad dressing or olive oil or butter).

Over the Next Week Before the Next Big Outing
Continue taking your amino acid supplements–BCAAs and glutamine–to ensure adequate immune system function and repair any lingering muscle or lung damage. Dehydration can persist for several days following a long run and even modest levels of dehydration can inhibit recovery, so be sure to hydrate adequately (indicated by clear urine) before your next trail run.

Shawn Talbott holds a PhD in nutritional biochemistry and MS in Exercise Science, and practices recovery principles after his trail runs in Utah’s Wasatch Mountains. He can be reached at smtalbott@supplementwatch.com.